會計Essay如何寫：An Impairment Loss Is Deemed To Have Occurred

本文是會計專業的Essay范例，題目是“An Impairment Loss Is Deemed To Have Occurred（減值損失被視為已經發生）”，1998年公布的國際會計準則36資產減值，隨后在2004年和2008年進行了修訂，旨在確保資產在財務狀況表上的價值不大于其可收回金額。本文旨在批判性地評估減值損失發生的情況，并解釋公司應該在什么時候進行資產減值審查，同時討論減值決定對公司的財務狀況和業績的影響。

Introduction介紹

IAS 36 Impairment of assets published in 1998 and subsequently amended in 2004 and in 2008, seeks to ensure that an asset is not carried on the statement of financial position at a value that is greater that it’s recoverable amount. This paper aims to critically appraise the circumstances where an impairment loss is deemed to have occurred and explain when companies should perform an impairment review of assets, while discussing the effects of impairment decisions on the firm’s financial position and performance.

Previously there was little authoritative guidance on the accounting for asset impairments. The absence of explicit guidance for many assets permitted substantial discretion in terms of amounts and timing of write offs (Francis et al, 1996). Over time accounting standards have moved towards presenting more items at fair value on the Balance Sheet. In doing so IAS 36 tries to remove as much discretion as possible. The primary objective of IAS 36 Impairment of Assets is to ensure that an entity’s assets are carried at no more than their recoverable amount and the standard sets out the criteria for defining how the recoverable amount is determined. Entities are required to conduct impairment tests where there is an indication of impairment of an asset, with the exception of goodwill and certain intangible assets for which an annual impairment test is required. Intangible assets with an indefinite useful life, an intangible asset not yet available for use and acquired goodwill should all be measured annually whether or not there is any indication of impairment.

此前幾乎沒有關于資產減值會計的權威指導。由于對許多資產缺乏明確的指導，因此可以在注銷的金額和時間方面有很大的自由裁量權(Francis等人，1996年)。隨著時間的推移，會計準則已經朝著在資產負債表上以公允價值呈現更多項目的方向發展。在這樣做的過程中，國際會計準則第36號試圖盡可能多地取消自由裁量權。國際會計準則36資產減值的主要目標是確保一個實體的資產的賬面價值不超過其可收回金額，該標準制定了定義如何確定可收回金額的標準。如果某項資產有減值跡象，則要求各實體進行減值測試，但商譽和某些需要每年進行減值測試的無形資產除外。使用期限不確定的無形資產、尚未使用的無形資產和取得的商譽，無論是否有減值跡象，均應按年計量。

Impairment is deemed to occur when the carrying amount is higher than the recoverable amount (i.e. the value in use. the asset’s net selling price or the fair value as determined in accordance with IFRS 13). At the end of each reporting period an entity is required to assess whether there is any indication of impairment. If an indication of impairment is evident then the assets recoverable amount must be calculated [IAS 36.9]. An impairment loss is recognised where the recoverable amount is below the carrying amount [IAS 36.59]. The impairment loss should be immediately recognised, generally as an expense unless it relates to a revalued asset where the impairment loss is treated as a revaluation decrease [IAS 36.60]. In the case of goodwill, a cash-generating unit to which goodwill has been allocated shall be tested for impairment at least annually by comparing the carrying amount of the unit, including the goodwill, with the recoverable amount of the unit: [IAS 36.90] In each situation, if the carrying amount of the unit exceeds the recoverable amount of the unit, the entity must recognise an impairment loss. This is a radical change in accounting for goodwill. Previously, International Accounting Standards required recognition of Goodwill subject to amortisation over its useful lifetime.

當賬面價值高于可收回金額(即使用價值)時，即認為發生了減值。根據國際財務報告準則13確定的資產凈售價或公允價值。在每個報告期間結束時，實體必須評估是否有減值跡象。如果減值跡象明顯，則必須計算資產可收回金額[國際會計準則36.9]。如可收回金額低于賬面金額，則確認減值損失[國際會計準則36.59]。減值損失應立即確認，通常作為一項費用，除非它與一項重新估值的資產有關，減值損失被視為一項重新估值的減少[國際會計準則36.60]。在商譽的情況下，應至少每年對已分配商譽的現金產生單位進行減值測試，將該單位包括商譽在內的賬面價值與該單位的可收回金額進行比較:[IAS 36.90]在每種情況下，如果單位的賬面價值超過了單位的可收回金額，該實體必須確認減值損失。這是商譽會計核算的一個根本性變化。以前，國際會計準則要求在其有效期內確認攤銷的商譽。

Indicators of impairment are set out in IAS 36 with a view to making the decision less subjective than previously was the case. Negative changes in technology, markets, economy and law could all have adverse impact on the value of an entity’s assets. Indicators of impairment could be as a result of internal or external sources. The market value of an asset may decline as a result of usage or the passage of time. Other external indicators of a decline in value could be the result of significant technological, market, economic, or legal changes which occur and have an adverse effect on the asset or entity. Market interest rates may impact the discount rate used in calculating the value in use of an asset and therefore decreasing its recoverable amount. Internal indicators of an impairment review could be the result of obsolete or physically damage assets, or if an asset is part of a restructure or held for sale, or where the economic performance of an asset is worse than expected.

Despite the standard being objectively set, it can be difficult in determining the measurement of value attributable in assessing impairment options. The timings and measurement of asset write-downs rely heavily on estimates. A number of features of impairment testing and measurement process make implementation a challenge. Triggering events to indicate impairment are many and vary greatly in significance and severity. Different valuation models are used and there is little conformity in the selection of discount rates. (Comiskey and Mulford, 2010). A difference in nature continues to exist between fair values disclosed by management. While the standard seeks to increase transparency and eliminate the subjectivity of accounting for impairments, the exercise for determining if an asset is impaired and by how much remains at management’s discretion. It was felt that previously management took advantage of the discretion afforded by accounting rules to manipulate earnings either by not recognising impairment when it has occurred or by recognising it only when it is advantages (to them) to do so (Francis et al, 1996). The standard now seeks to address this discretion by requiring annual impairment (Goodwill and intangibles) or impairment reviews to be carried out whenever there is an indication of impairment. Even still, there is an element of discretion afforded to the calculation of impairments and so management incentives to manage earnings can still play a part in any impairment decisions. These estimates might be managed to alter or avoid impairments, limiting the comparability across firms. A goodwill impairment loss, for example, is estimated in most cases from management’s projections of future cash flows (Z Li et al, 2011). This is problematic to the investors who are unable to see through these potential manipulations. Indeed, investors and analysts have the option to adjust, or indeed totally ignore, reported accounting numbers, therefore it is far less certain whether this reporting behaviour actually misleads users or reduces reliability and relevance (Lhaopadchan, 2010). Additionally, financial statements differ from the management accounts used by an entity and the effect of any impairment further widens a gap already existing between management information accounts used by the board and the financial statements audited and published.

盡管標準是客觀設定的，但在評估減值期權時，很難確定可歸因于價值的衡量方法。資產減記的時機和衡量方法在很大程度上依賴于估算。減值檢測和測量過程的一些特點給實施帶來了挑戰。提示損傷的觸發事件很多，在意義和嚴重程度上差異很大。采用了不同的估值模型，在貼現率的選擇上存在很大的一致性。(Comiskey and Mulford, 2010)。管理層披露的公允價值在本質上仍然存在差異。雖然該標準尋求提高透明度，并消除計提減值的主觀性，但確定資產是否減值以及減值多少仍由管理層自行決定。人們認為，以前的管理層利用會計規則所賦予的自由裁量權來操縱收益，要么在發生減值時不予以確認，要么在(對他們)有利的情況下才予以確認(Francis et al, 1996)。現在，該標準要求在出現減值跡象時進行年度減值(商譽和無形資產)或減值審查，以解決這種酌情權問題。即便如此，在減值的計算中仍存在斟酌因素，因此管理盈余的激勵措施仍可在任何減值決策中發揮作用。這些估計可以設法改變或避免損失，限制公司之間的可比性。例如，商譽減值損失在大多數情況下是根據管理層對未來現金流的預測來估計的(Z Li et al, 2011)。這對那些無法看透這些潛在操縱行為的投資者來說是個問題。事實上，投資者和分析師可以選擇調整或完全忽略所報告的會計數字，因此，這種報告行為是否真的誤導用戶或降低可靠性和相關性就不那么確定了(Lhaopadchan, 2010)。此外，財務報表不同于實體使用的管理帳戶，任何減值的影響進一步擴大了董事會使用的管理信息帳戶與審計和公布的財務報表之間已經存在的差距。

Earnings manipulation is one such concern given the judgemental approach to the indication of and calculation of impairment. One of the most widely cited papers that investigate the effect of executive compensation plan on accounting choice is Healy (1985). Healy hypothesizes that managers have an economic incentive to manipulate earnings in order to increase their cash compensation, this being the case certain accounting standards allow for this more than others and IAS 36 still allows for an element of judgement in the calculation of impairments. Furthermore, papers have cited the nature behind recognition (or lack of recognition) of impairments and IAS 36 permits an impairment loss on a long lived asset to be reversed if the economic value of the asset recovers. This has been seen to have a direct impact on the practice of impairments whereby reversibility has a positive effect on a manager’s decision to record asset impairments. ‘Permitting reversals significantly increases the likelihood that a manager will record the impairment’ (Trottier 2013) thus highlighting the discretion that management can withhold towards the treatment of impairments.

考慮到對減值的指示和計算的判斷方法，盈余操縱就是這樣一個擔憂。在調查高管薪酬計劃對會計選擇的影響時，被引用最廣泛的論文之一是Healy(1985)。Healy假設，管理者有操縱收益的經濟動機，以增加他們的現金補償，在這種情況下，某些會計準則比其他準則更多地考慮到這一點，而ias36在計算減值時仍然考慮到一個判斷因素。此外，論文還引用了確認(或不確認)減值背后的性質，而國際會計準則36允許，如果一項長期資產的經濟價值恢復，該資產的減值損失可以逆轉。這被認為對減值的實踐有直接的影響，因此可逆性對管理者記錄資產減值的決定有積極的影響。“允許逆轉顯著增加了經理記錄減值的可能性”(Trottier 2013)，從而突出了管理層在處理減值時可以保留的酌情權。

Volatile financial markets and shifting economic conditions can impact the value of a company’s assets across the Balance Sheet. The recent global meltdown of financial markets was accompanied by highly publicised asset write-downs (Spear and Taylor 2011) and so the standard seeks to address the transparency of the financial statements by ensuring that impairments are directly reflected through the profit and loss account and statement of comprehensive income, disclosed by class of asset. It is not surprising that the most frequent write down activities took place during periods of economic recession confirming the strong relationship between asset write-downs and economic conditions. In 2013 the consolidated results of PSA Peugeot Citroen saw a €1,101 million impairment charge, mainly recognised with respect to the assets of the Automotive Division, primarily to reflect the deteriorating automobile markets and adverse exchange rate movements in Russia and Latin America. Additionally, in 2014 Vodafone’s end of year profits dropped after a ￡6.6bn impairment relating to the value of European operations whereby lower than expected cash flows were the result of a tougher macroeconomic environment and heavy price competition contributing to a total decline in revenues. Both investors and financial analysts revise their expectations downward on the announcement of an impairment loss. The negative impact of the loss serves as a leading indicator of a decline in the future profitability of an entity. (Z Li et al, 2011).

動蕩的金融市場和不斷變化的經濟狀況會影響資產負債表上公司資產的價值。最近全球金融市場的崩潰伴隨著高度公開的資產減記(Spear和Taylor 2011)，因此該標準尋求解決財務報表的透明度，確保減值直接反映在損益表和綜合收益表中，按資產類別披露。毫不奇怪，最頻繁的減記活動發生在經濟衰退期間，這證實了資產減記與經濟狀況之間的密切關系。2013年，標致雪鐵龍集團(PSA Peugeot Citroen)的合并業績出現了11.01億歐元的減值支出，主要是針對汽車部門的資產，主要反映了日益惡化的汽車市場和俄羅斯和拉丁美洲不利的匯率變動。此外，2014年，沃達豐在歐洲業務計入66億英鎊減值后，其年終利潤出現下滑。歐洲業務現金流低于預期，是宏觀經濟環境惡化和激烈的價格競爭導致總收入下降的結果。投資者和金融分析師都下調了他們對減值損失的預期。虧損的負面影響是一個實體未來盈利能力下降的先行指標。(zli et al, 2011)。

Conclusion結論

In conclusion, despite the presumed benefits associated with Fair Value accounting, it is shown that in practice managerial self-interests and earnings management concerns appear to motivate many impairment decisions (Lhaopadchan, 2010). IAS 36 goes further than any previous standard and subsequent amendments to eliminate any subjectivity involved in highlighting and calculating an impairment loss. While goodwill should be assessed annually for impairment other potentially impaired assets are only reviewed in detail for impairment if there is an indication of impairment, some of which are highlighted by the standard itself, however the indicator of impairment could go unidentified resulting in misleading financial statements. Additionally many calculations of impairment use management projections which could include error or contain an element of managerial self-interest and manipulation. Generally speaking the reaction of market participants to any impairment disclosed in the financial statements is of a negative nature with the exception of restructuring costs for which highlight future spend. While the standard seeks to provide a truer and fairer representation of asset value it should be noted with caution the subjective nature of any calculations. Even with an unqualified audit report on the financial statements the audit opinion on impairment is only as good as the information provided and made available to the external auditors.

綜上所述，盡管公允價值會計具有假定的收益，但研究表明，在實踐中，管理層的自我利益和盈余管理問題似乎激勵了許多減值決定(Lhaopadchan, 2010)。國際會計準則36比以前的任何標準和隨后的修正更進一步，消除了突出和計算減值損失時涉及的任何主觀性。雖然商譽應每年進行減值評估，但其他可能受損的資產只有在有減值跡象的情況下才對減值進行詳細審查，其中一些減值跡象在標準本身中被強調，但減值指標可能不明確，從而導致財務報表具有誤導性。此外，許多減值的計算使用管理預測，其中可能包括錯誤或包含管理自身利益和操縱的因素。一般來說，市場參與者對財務報表中披露的任何減值的反應都是消極的，但強調未來支出的重組成本除外。雖然該標準尋求提供更真實和更公平的資產價值表示，但應謹慎注意任何計算的主觀性質。即使財務報表上有一份無保留意見的審計報告，關于減值的審計意見也只與提供給外部審計師的信息一樣好。

Hence, it can be concluded that IAS 36 Impairment of assets has come far to contribute to improve the transparency of the financial statements by successfully determining when and how impairment reviews should be conducted, however there will remain an element of managerial judgement for which caution should be taken by all users of the financial statements.

因此，可以得出結論，國際會計準則第36號資產減值已經通過成功地確定何時和如何進行減值審查，為提高財務報表的透明度作出了貢獻。但是，仍然存在管理判斷的因素，財務報表的所有使用者都應謹慎對待。

留學生論文相關專業范文素材資料，盡在本網，可以隨時查閱參考。本站也提供多國留學生課程作業寫作指導服務，如有需要可咨詢本平臺。